① 黑豹党(The Black Panther Party),1966年10月成立于美国加利福尼亚州的奥克兰市,最初自称为“黑豹自卫党”(Black Panther Party for Self-Defense),1968年底改称黑豹党。牛顿任黑豹党武装部长,实为头号领袖;希尔任黑豹党主席,是为名义领袖;克里弗曾任黑豹党宣传部长。
② 关于“黑人权力”运动国内已有部分研究,参见谢国荣:《1960年代中后期的美国“黑人权力”运动及其影响》,《世界历史》2010年第1期,第40-52页;梅祖蓉:《美国“黑人权力”运动:公民权运动中的极端主义》,《世界民族》2014年第3期,第71-82页;巩大松、谢国荣:《20世纪60年代中后期美国黑豹党的武装自卫及其影响》,《求是学刊》2018年第5期,第142-154页。国外相关研究参见Jeffrey O.G.Obar,Black Power:Radical Politics and African American Identity,Baltimore:The John Hopkins University Press,2005;Peniel E.Joseph,Waiting ?Til the Midnight Hour,New York:Henry Holt and Co.,2006;Richard Wright,Black Power: Three Books from Exile: Black Power,The Color Curtain,and White Man,Listen!,New York:Harper Collins,2010.
(1)关于黑豹党济贫斗争的整体研究,参见Daniel Crowe,Prophets of Rage: The Black Freedom Struggle in San Francisco,1945-1969,New York:Garland Publishing,Inc.,2000;Paul Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution: The History of the Black Panther Party,Tuscaloosa:University of Alabama Press,2007.关于黑豹党济贫斗争中某一具体项目的研究,参见Susan Levine,School Lunch Politics: The Surprising History of America?s Favorite Welfare Program,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2008;Nik Heynen,“Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival:The Black Panther Party?s Radical Antihunger Politics of Social Reproduction and Scale,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers,Vol.99,No.2,2009,pp.406-422;Alondra Nelson,Body and Soul: The Black Panther Party and the Fight against Medical Discrimination,Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,2011.
(2)David Hilliard,ed.,The Black Panther Party: Service to the People Programs,Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,2008.
(3)Crowe,Prophets of Rage,p.222.
(4)一些学者仍将黑豹党的济贫斗争视为其激进政治诉求的沿袭或微调,参见Curtis J.Austin,Up against the Wall:Violence in the Making and Unmaking of the Black Panther Party,Fayetteville:University of Arkansas Press,2006,pp.262-266;Obar,Black Power,pp.90-91.另一些学者则在是否将之界定为革命或改革运动的问题上游移不定,参见Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution,pp.127-132.
(5)于展:《美国民权运动中的中国因素》,《全球史评论》第7辑,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2015年,第144-168页;黄逸云:《试析黑人力量运动的源泉:黑豹党及其社区基层组织行动》,《台州学院学报》2018年第2期,第52-55页。
(6)本文所用的黑豹党档案文献为美国斯坦福大学胡佛研究所收录、1967—1980年间黑豹党所发行的报纸文献——《黑豹》(Black Panther)。Black Panther又被称为The Black Panther Newspaper、The Black Panther Community News Service,最初发行于1967年春,大致每两周一期,是黑豹党向黑人社区提供新闻、开展政治教育以及对外宣传的刊物。
(7)Donna Jean Murch,Living for the City: Migration,Education,and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland,California,Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina,2010,pp.3-10.
(8)Andrew Wiese,Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2004,pp.183-209.
(9)Murch,Living for the City,pp.13-17.
(10)Crowe,Prophets of Rage,pp.159-168.
(11)Crowe,Prophets of Rage,p.226.
(12)吕庆广:《当代资本主义内部的反叛与修复机制——60年代美国学生运动分析》,《南京大学学报》2003年第2期,第57-58页。
(13)关于马尔科姆激进思想对当时美国黑人社会的影响,参见Obar,Black Power,pp.45-55.
(14)Joshua Bloom and Waldo E.Martin,Black against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party,Berkeley:University of California Press,2014,pp.2-3.
(15)United States Riot Commission,Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders,New York:Bantam Books,1968,pp.9-11,362-367.
(16)Gordon Keith Mantler,Power to the Poor: Black-Brown Coalition and the Fight for Economic Justice,1960-1974,Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press Books,2013,pp.92,4-5.
(17)Gerald McKnight,The Last Crusade: Martin Luther King,Jr.,the FBI,and the Poor People?s Campaign,Boulder:Westview Press,1998,pp.13-20.
(18)该组织曾是温和派民权斗争的重要推动者,但在南部种族主义刺激下日益激进,卡迈克尔担任领导人后进而提出“黑人权力”。参见Clayborne Carson,In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1995.
(19)Stokely Carmichael and Charles V.Hamilton,Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America,New York:Random House,1967,pp.4-10,37-43.
(20)Crowe,Prophets of Rage,p.223.
(21)黑豹党的名称和标识完全沿袭了卡迈克尔在阿拉巴马州帮助创设的黑人武装自卫组织。参见Huey P.Newton,Revolutionary Suicide,New York:Harcout,1973,pp.112-113.黑豹党还一度将卡迈克尔奉为精神导师和荣誉总理(Primer)。参见The Black Panther,June 20,1967,p.7.
(22)黑豹党党纲包括:实现黑人社区自决、充分就业、体面住房、平等教育、公正司法待遇、反对白人警察暴力执法、反对白人剥削黑人社区以及释放一切黑人犯人等。参见The Black Panther,July 3,1967,p.3.
(23)Frantz Fanon,Wretched of the Earth,New York:Grove Press,1968,pp.4-18.
(24)参见于展:《马尔科姆·X的早期思想轨迹》,《史学月刊》2006年第3期,第68-72页;王恩铭:《马尔科姆·爱克斯与“黑人力量”》,《世界民族》2011年第5期,第81-91页。
(25)参见于展:《美国民权运动中的中国因素》,《全球史评论》第7辑,第146-161页。
(26)The Black Panther,July 3,1967,pp.3,7;July 20,1967,p.11.
(27)Bloom and Martin,Black against Empire,pp.45-47.
(28)例如,1967年5月2日,加州议会准备审议通过一项禁止加州公民在公共场所携带上膛枪支的法案,大约30名黑豹党人(其中一些人带着枪支)出现在加州首府萨克拉门托议会大厦门前抗议,后遭逮捕。
(29)Bloom and Martin,Black against Empire,pp.104-110.
(30)1968年底,黑豹党已拥有数千成员,在美国各大中城市建立了数十个支部,《黑豹》的发行量也达到每期25万份。参见Molefi K.Asante and Ama Mazama,eds.,Encyclopedia of Black Studies,Thousand Oaks,C.A.:Sage Publications Inc.,2005,pp.135-137.
(31)Jane Rhodes,Framing the Black Panthers: The Spectacular Rise of a Black Power Icon,Urbana:University of Illinois Press,2017,p.77.
(32)Kenneth O?Reilly,Racial Matters: The FBI?s Secret File on Black America,1960-1972,New York:Free Press,1989,pp.287-320.
(33)参见巩大松、谢国荣:《20世纪60年代中后期美国黑豹党的武装自卫及其影响》,《求是学刊》2018年第5期,第150-152页。
(34)1967年底牛顿卷入奥克兰警官谋杀案,被判杀人罪而入狱;1968年底,克里弗卷入袭警案,流亡古巴、阿尔及利亚;1970年,希尔也被控谋杀了一位所谓被联邦调查局收买的黑豹党纽黑文支部成员而短暂入狱。
(35)黑豹党当时经常在《黑豹》上刊登成员被捕的消息,以向社会募集保释金。参见The Black Panther,May 15,1967,p.7;July 20,1967,p.7.
(36)Huey P.Newton,War against the Panthers: A Study of Repression in America,New York:Writers and Readers Publishing,1996,pp.43-51.
(37)Austin,Up against the Wall,p.106.
(38)Obar,Black Power,p.84.
(39)Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution,pp.38-39.
(40)于展:《美国民权运动中的中国因素》,《全球史评论》2016年第7辑,第147-149页。
(41)The Black Panther,May 18,1968,pp.11,25.
(42)Kai T.Erikson,In Search of Common Ground: Conversation with Erik H.Erikson & Huey P.Newton,New York:W.W.Norton & Company Inc.,1973,p.45.
(43)Bobby Seale,Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P.Newton,New York:Random House,1970,p.4.
(44)The Black Panther,January 4,1969,p.14.
(45)“三大纪律”(3 main rules of discipline)、“八项注意”(8 points of attention)等中国共产党对军队的纪律条令也被完整纳入黑豹党新设立的党纪规章中。参见The Black Panther,January 4,1969,p.20.
(46)1968年起,《黑豹》宣传中经常出现“全心全意为人民服务”(Serve the People Body and Soul)、“所有权力属于人民”(All Power to the People)之类口号。参见The Black Panther,September 14,1968,p.3;April 10,1971,p.11.
(47)Toni Morrison,ed.,To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P.Newton,New York:Random House,1972,pp.44-53,20-22.
(48)The Black Panther,April 6,1969,p.14.
(49)Seale,Seize the Time,pp.35-44.
(50)Quoted from Austin,Up against the Wall,p.260.
(51)Morrison,ed.,To Die for the People,pp.28-43.
(52)Morrison,ed.,To Die for the People,pp.66-67.
(53)The Black Panther,April 17,1971,p.1.
(54)The Black Panther,December 21,1968,p.15.
(55)Heynen,“Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival,” pp.411,406-408.
(56)Hilliard,ed.,The Black Panther Party,pp.30-32.
(57)The Black Panther,March 3,1969,p.11.
(58)Quoted from Austin,Up against the Wall,p.260.
(59)The Black Panther,January 4,1969,p.16.
(60)Morrison,ed.,To Die for the People,pp.109-111.
(61)The Black Panther,May 11,1969,p.8.
(62)Morrison,ed.,To Die for the People,pp.60-62.
(63)Hilliard,ed.,The Black Panther Party,p.34.
(64)Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution,p.36.
(65)The Black Panther,October 18,1969,p.3.
(66)Hilliard,ed.,The Black Panther Party,pp.21-23.
(67)The Black Panther,April 10,1971,p.10;April 1,1972,p.6.
(68)Hilliard,ed.,The Black Panther Party,pp.24-26.
(69)Crowe,Prophets of Rage,pp.175-179,152.
(70)Hilliard,ed.,The Black Panther Party,pp.5-7.
(71)Elaine Brown,A Taste of Power: A Black Woman?s Story,New York:Pantheon Books,1992,pp.391-393.
(72)Austin,Up against the Wall,p.260.
(73)The Black Panther,February 7,1976,p.4;September 29,1975,p.4;August 2,1969,p.4;p.3.
(74)David Hilliard and Lewis Cole,This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party,Boston:Little Brown,1993,p.259.
(75)Lauren Araiza,“In Common Struggle against a Common Oppression:The United Farm Workers and the Black Panther Party,1968-1973,” The Journal of African American History,Vol.94,No.2,2009,pp.200-223.
(76)The Black Panther,September 14,1968,p.10.
(77)Bloom and Martin,Black against Empire,pp.309-322.
(78)1971年9月,牛顿在尼克松访华之前访问了中国大陆,但未如愿受到毛泽东的亲自接见。参见Newton,Revolutionary Suicide,pp.349-351.
(79)于展:《美国民权运动研究述评》,《美国研究》2008年第1期,第122-132页。
(80)The Black Panther,September 5,1970,p.9.
(81)Hilliard,ed.,The Black Panther Party,pp.61-68.
(82)Austin,Up against the Wall,pp.252-255.
(83)“Black Panther Party Community Programs (1966-1982),” https:∥web.stanford.edu/group/blackpanthers/programs.shtml,May 22,2019.
(84)Robyn C.Spencer,The Revolution Has Come: Black Power,Gender,and the Black Panther Party in Oakland,Durham:Duke University Press,2016,pp.90-98.
(85)Crowe,Prophets of Rage,pp.175-179,224.
(86)Austin,Up against the Wall,p.262;Levine,School Lunch Politics,p.139.另一说为“每天免费供应两万名儿童早餐”,参见Bloom and Martin,Black against Empire,p.184.
(87)Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution,p.36.
(88)The Black Panther,September 29,1975,p.4.
(89)Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution,p.35.
(90)The Black Panther,September 13,1969,p.19.
(91)Crowe,Prophets of Rage,pp.175-179,224-225.
(92)伊斯兰民族协会是当时比较活跃的黑人宗教民族主义组织,主张基督教为种族压迫工具,黑人应信仰伊斯兰教。参见Obar,Black Power,pp.11-35.美利坚黑人合众国是当时典型的黑人文化民族主义组织,致力于建构美国黑人的非洲文化认同。参见Scott Brown,Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga,the US Organization,and Black Cultural Nationalism,New York:New York University,2003.
(93)Peniel E.Joseph,“The Black Power Movement:A State of the Field,” The Journal of American History,Vol.96,No.3,2009,pp.751-756.
(94)例如,1970年美国著名钢琴大师莱昂纳多·伯恩斯坦(Leonard Bernstein)在其纽约家中邀聚一批社会名流为黑豹党募捐,引发媒体热议。参见Tom Wolfe,Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers,New York:Farrar,Straus and Giroux,1970.
(95)Hilliard and Cole,This Side of Glory,p.14.
(96)Heynen,“Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival,” p.411.
(97)Hilliard and Cole,This Side of Glory,p.339.
(98)Austin,Up against the Wall,p.265;Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution,p.36.
(99)该组织存在于1966—1975年,成员曾达两万多人,并以黑人女性为主,为妇女和儿童争取福利权益是其斗争重点。参见Guida West,The National Welfare Rights Movement: The Social Protest of Poor Women,New York:Praeger,1981,pp.3-11.
(100)William Von Deburg,New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture,1965-1975,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992,p.306.
(101)Joseph,Waiting ?Til the Midnight Hour,p.xiv.
(102)The Black Panther,April 1,1972,pp.1,2.
(103)Bloom and Martin,Black against Empire,pp.318-321;Austin,Up against the Wall,pp.115-116.
(104)克里弗将携枪行动发展为暴力袭警等犯罪活动,还应邀在北越河内发表了煽动美国士兵叛乱的演说。参见Austin,Up against the Wall,pp.102-104.
(105)Morrison,ed.,To Die for the People,pp.44-53,101-103.
(106)Austin,Up against the Wall,pp.298-304.
(107)Ryan J.Kirkby,“The Revolution Will Not Be Televised:Community Activism and the Black Panther Party,1966-1971,” Canadian Review of American Studies,Vol.41,No.1,2011,pp.25-62.
(108)Rhodes,Framing the Black Panthers,pp.252-257.
(109)Bloom and Martin,Black against Empire,p.186.
(110)The Black Panther,January 19,1974,p.8;September 13,1969,pp.6,19.
(111)Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution,pp.87-97.
(112)Brown,A Taste of Power,p.157.
(113)Hugh Pearson,The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America,Boston:Addison-Wesley Publisher Company,1994,pp.240-241.
(114)当时奥克兰社区学校的经费来源实际上转变为主要依靠政府资助,教学内容也相应做了调整。参见Alkebulan,Survival Pending Revolution,pp.35-36.
(115)Morrison,ed.,To Die for the People,p.68.
(3)Obar,Black Power,p. 118.
(4)Joe Street，“The Historiography of the Black Panther Party，”Journal of American Studies,Vol. 44,No. 2,2010,pp. 351-375.
